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Lim En Qi

Junior College

The Role of Geographical Investigations In Developing Students’ Cognitive Thinking

Author/s:

Lim En Qi (National Institute of Education ) Keywords Geography Junior College Secondary School Geographical Inquiry Fieldwork Cognitive Thinking Abstract In Singapore, there has been a shift in education towards more inquiry-based learning to equip students with skills for the future. Geographical Investigations (GI) have been introduced as a form of geographical inquiry where students participate […]

Lim En Qi (National Institute of Education )

Keywords
Geography
Junior College
Secondary School
Geographical Inquiry
Fieldwork
Cognitive Thinking

Abstract
In Singapore, there has been a shift in education towards more inquiry-based learning to equip students with skills for the future. Geographical Investigations (GI) have been introduced as a form of geographical inquiry where students participate actively in knowledge construction through fieldwork. Fieldwork deepens students’ understanding of content and aids in students’ affective, social, and cognitive development. However, there is limited local research on the value of Geography fieldwork in influencing students’ cognitive thinking. This paper, therefore, examines the role of GI in developing Secondary students’ cognitive thinking in Geography. Using a case-study approach, Secondary 2 students in one secondary school were interviewed before and after their GI on the topic of Transport. Data was analysed using an adapted model of Bloom’s Taxonomy. All students showed an improvement in higher-order cognitive skills after GI, specifically in the development of higher-order cognitive thinking skills and deeper thinking at particular cognitive levels.

Introduction
Fieldwork is an essential part of Geography. Defined as supervised learning that encourages first-hand experiences outside the classroom (Lonergan & Anderson, 1988), fieldwork can be categorized into various types depending on the degree of teacher and student involvement: This ranges from traditional teacher-led field trips to more student-centred inquiry-based field projects and self-discovery (Kent, Gilbertson & Hunt, 1997). Among these, student-centred activities and inquiry-driven fieldwork have been recognised as most effective in facilitating deep learning where students play a more active role in making sense of knowledge (Kent et al., 1997; Oost, De Vries & Van der Schee, 2011). Recently, there has been an increased emphasis on inquiry-based learning for education in Singapore. The Ministry of Education (MOE) has highlighted geographical inquiry as the recommended pedagogical approach for Geography education (Curriculum Planning and Development Division [CPDD], 2014). In line with this change, Geographical Investigations (GI) was introduced to develop students’ 21st Century Competencies, cultivating them to become confident, self-directed learners through inquiry-driven fieldwork (CPDD, 2014).

Fieldwork provides students with an avenue to better understand subject content by bridging the gaps between theoretical ideas learnt in class with real-life experiences (Chew, 2008; Das, 2014). It aids in students’ affective (Boyle et al., 2007), personal and social development which concomitantly supports cognitive development (Foskett, 1999; Oost et al., 2011). Nevertheless, most studies adopt a generic stance to analysing fieldwork, neglecting how the nature of fieldwork influences students’ learning and development. Empirical studies on how fieldwork contributes to cognitive development are still limited with regard to Geography, and even more so for school Geography in Singapore.

Considering the shift towards more inquiry-based learning and how fieldwork is a defining feature of Geography, there is a need to contemplate how active, inquiry-driven fieldwork develops students’ thinking. Thus, this study examines the role of GI in developing secondary students’ cognitive abilities. More specifically, it focuses on the effects of a Transport GI on Secondary 2 students’ thinking. It aims to compare students’ cognitive abilities before and after undergoing a Transport GI.

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Incorporating Mediated Learning Experience in Geography Lessons

Author/s:

Esther Wong Ting Wei

Wong Ting Wei, Esther (National Institute of Education ) Keywords Geography Junior College Secondary School Mediated Learning Experience Geography Inquiry-Based Learning Approach Cognitive Affective Mediation Abstract With the recent emphasis on 21st century competencies, inquiry-based learning has been touted as the recommended pedagogy as it attempts to move away from didactic teaching. However, an analysis of the […]

Wong Ting Wei, Esther (National Institute of Education )

Keywords
Geography
Junior College
Secondary School
Mediated Learning Experience
Geography
Inquiry-Based Learning Approach
Cognitive
Affective
Mediation

Abstract
With the recent emphasis on 21^st century competencies, inquiry-based learning has been touted as the recommended pedagogy as it attempts to move away from didactic teaching. However, an analysis of the current geography syllabus revealed three possible areas of improvement: (1) lack of intentional mediation of cognitive functions (2) lack of continuous mediation and (3) lack of emphasis on enhancing students’ dispositions in learning. From research, inquiry-based learning could be complemented by MLE, a theory developed by Feuerstein which refers to the quality interaction between the mediator and learner. Therefore, the purpose of this research paper is to explore how principles of MLE may be applied to address the aforementioned areas of improvement to enhance students’ learning in the geography classroom. Subsequently, a broad conceptualization of how MLE may be utilized to underpin the inquiry-based learning approach will be provided.

Inquiry-Based Learning as A Teaching Pedagogy
Over the years, revisions have been made to Singapore’s education system to better equip students with 21^st century competencies to help them succeed in a rapidly changing world (Deng, Gopinathan, & Lee, 2013). One major reform in the education system is the introduction of Thinking Schools, Learning Nation (TSLN) in 1997 which is a vision that “describes a nation of thinking and committed citizens capable of meeting the challenges of the… 21^st century” (Chang, 2012). In alignment with this vision to develop in students 21^st century competencies, the humanities syllabuses adopted inquiry-based learning as the recommended teaching pedagogy (Afandi, 2013).

Geographical inquiry is a question-driven approach in which inquiry questions are asked (either by the teacher or students themselves) and students would subsequently find out the answers to those questions by embarking on an investigation (Roberts, 2013). According to Roberts (2013), the learning of geography through an inquiry approach gives students the opportunity to cultivate thinking skills such as reasoning, classifying information and analyzing data (refer to Figure 1). These skills could either be specific to geography or classified as general thinking skills which could also be applied to other subjects. Broadly, these thinking skills could also be thought of as cognitive functions. Cognitive functions are defined as “process variables that are themselves compounds of native ability, attitudes, work habits, learning history, motives and strategies” (Seng & Tan, 2008). Thus, in essence, cognitive functions refer to a broad spectrum of cognitive capabilities, representing different domains of thinking. Therefore, when teachers utilize the inquiry-based approach to teach geography, they are seeking to develop and enhance students’ cognitive functioning such that students could be equipped with the desired thinking skills.

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Sampling in Geographical Fieldwork Using GIS Techniques

Author/s:

Heidi Tan Sheng Ting

Tan Sheng Ting, Heidi (National Institute of Education ) Keywords Geography Junior College Secondary School Fieldwork GIS Remote Sensing Sampling Geography Education Abstract Sampling is a fundamental and essential component in geographical fieldwork. Sampling is the process of gathering data from purposefully selected sites, such that the data collected best represents the general phenomenon being studied. […]

Tan Sheng Ting, Heidi (National Institute of Education )

Keywords
Geography
Junior College
Secondary School
Fieldwork
GIS
Remote Sensing Sampling
Geography Education

Abstract
Sampling is a fundamental and essential component in geographical fieldwork. Sampling is the process of gathering data from purposefully selected sites, such that the data collected best represents the general phenomenon being studied. In geography education, teachers often have to look for suitable sites for students to conduct fieldwork, for example, which location to conduct interviews. However, many teachers are afraid to venture out into unchartered territories where the potential site for fieldwork is unfamiliar. This paper seeks to illustatre the use of GIS techniques to determine the suitability of an unfamiliar site for sampling in geographical fieldwork through coastal research done on a coastline along Cha-am, Thailand.

Unfamiliar territories
The research conducted was about the impact of coastal erosion on Cha-am’s beach and Cha-am south beach and the shops along the coast. The research was conceptualised in Singapore, hence making it a challenge to visit the research site beforehand. In addition, there was no prior secondary research about coastal erosion and coastal retreat along Cha-am’s coastline. To overcome this challenge, GoogleEarth and GIS remote sensing techniques were utilitised to determine the suitability of various sites for research on coastal erosion.

Utilising GoogleEarth Satellite Imagery
Firstly, GoogleEarth was used to get an overview of possible sites along Cha-am’s coastline. Through GoogleEarth, the coastline was analysed using satellite images from various time scales through the time slider feature in GoogleEarth. The satellite images revealed that there was indeed coastal retreat along Cha-am coast over the years. Hence, by comparing the coastline in the different time scales, two sites along Cha-am’s coastline were identified – one at Cha-am beach as a ‘low erosion site’ and the other at Cha-am south beach as a ‘high erosion site’ (Figure 1).

The ‘low erosion site’ was identified for having the least significant coastal retreat compared to the rest of the coastline. In addition, the ‘low erosion site’ had the largest stretch of beach, which is a key coastal depositional landform (Figures 2a, 2b and 2c).

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Developing a Writing Framework to Guide Students’ Writing in Geography

Author/s:

Jamilah Sukimi

Jamilah Sukimi (Meridian Secondary School (Singapore) ) Samantha Lim (Presbyterian High School (Singapore)) Sarifah Tamsir (Pasir Ris Secondary School (Singapore)) Tan Say Pin (New Town Secondary School (Singapore)) Wong Yi Jun (Riverside Secondary School (Singapore)) Keywords Geography Junior College Secondary School Geographical concepts Critical Thinking Geographical Writing Abstract This paper examines the effectiveness of using a Writing Framework to guide […]

Keywords
Geography
Junior College
Secondary School
Geographical concepts
Critical Thinking
Geographical Writing

Abstract
This paper examines the effectiveness of using a Writing Framework to guide students to write geographically for a level descriptor question. The Writing Framework combines aspects of Paul’s EOT (Wheel of Reasoning) with Neighbour’s Core Questions to guide students’ writing. The Writing Framework provides structure in extended writing, but more importantly encourages students to consider the importance of two geographical concepts, ‘Place’ and ‘Space’, in their essay writing.

The study involved 18 Secondary 5 Normal (Academic) students. The majority of the students found the Writing Framework useful and showed an improvement in test scores. The results and student feedback highlighted the potential of the Writing Framework to help students in writing geographically.

Introduction
The concepts of ‘space’ and ‘place’ are key to understanding geographical thinking. Lambert (Lambert, 2012, 3) defined ‘Place’ as a specific part of the Earth’s surface that has been named and given meaning by people, although its meanings may differ. Places range in size from the home and locality to a major world region. They can be natural (shaped by the environment) or built (constructed by human beings). On the other hand, ‘Space’ has its own purpose or use and is characterised by location (where something is located on the Earth’s surface), spatial distribution (pattern resulting from the arrangement of phenomena on the Earth’s surface) and spatial organisation (how phenomena are arranged on the Earth’s surface, and why). These key concepts provide valuable insights into the nature of Geography because of their breadth of application to the content studied and the extent to which they are linked to other significant ideas within the subject (Bennett, 2010, p. 38). They help to anchor the subject by giving it a greater coherence, and the students’ reference to these concepts in their answers would enhance the quality of geographical thinking in their essay.

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Guiding Students in Writing Data Response Answers Using Bloom’s Taxonomy for Critical Thinking

Author/s:

Ong Ka Min

Ong Ka Min (Yuan Ching Secondary School (Singapore) ) Arulushamaheswary D/O Anbalagan (Yuan Ching Secondary School (Singapore)) Keywords Geography Junior College Secondary School Student Learning Abstract This study focuses on improving students’ ability to respond to data response questions with two or more variables – in particular, students’ ability to describe and compare the data given in […]

Ong Ka Min (Yuan Ching Secondary School (Singapore) )
Arulushamaheswary D/O Anbalagan (Yuan Ching Secondary School (Singapore))

Keywords
Geography
Junior College
Secondary School
Student Learning

Abstract
This study focuses on improving students’ ability to respond to data response questions with two or more variables – in particular, students’ ability to describe and compare the data given in data response questions. Based on Bloom’s Taxonomy, a step-by-step guide was crafted on how to approach these type of questions. The methodology used was quantitative data derived from pre- and post-tests, and a qualitative analysis of the post-test scripts. For this research, we picked Secondary 5 Normal (Academic) students who showed difficulty in coping with data response questions that have two or more variables. We found that the guide was useful in scaffolding writing answers for the students. However, while students were able to apply the lower stages of the guide, they were not able to spiral their critical thinking skills to higher levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Introduction
The Desired Outcomes of Education (DOE) serve as a guide to teachers in crafting their teaching goals. The development of the attributes stated under the DOE are believed to be key in ensuring that our students are able to thrive in the challenging climate of the 21^st Century. One of the ways in which the DOE can be achieved through Geography is through the development of students’ perspectives on Geographical issues by analysing data and information to critically arrive at reasoned conclusions. As such, part of the learning outcomes of the Upper Secondary Geography curriculum (CPDD, 2013) is the development of the following skills:

Extract relevant information from geographical data
Interpret and recognize patterns in geographical data and deduce relationships
Analyse, evaluate and synthesize geographical data to make informed and sound decisions.

As the types of geographical data that students have to work with vary, we felt that providing a structured thinking process would help to scaffold students’ writing, and help them to answer data response questions better.

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Historical Sources In The Classroom: Purpose and Use

Author/s:

Keith C. Barton

Barton, Keith C. (Indiana University) Keywords History Junior College Secondary School Historical Sources Abstract Historical sources are a common feature of history classrooms, but the purpose of using them is not always clear, and as a result, instructional activities with sources may not be as effective or meaningful as they should be. This lack of […]

Barton, Keith C. (Indiana University)

Keywords
History
Junior College
Secondary School
Historical Sources

Abstract
Historical sources are a common feature of history classrooms, but the purpose of using them is not always clear, and as a result, instructional activities with sources may not be as effective or meaningful as they should be. This lack of clarity stems in part from the fact that there are four distinctly different reasons for using sources, and each carries its own implications for classroom practice. These purposes are 1) illustration and motivation; 2) evidence for historical inquiry; 3) visual or textual interpretation; 4) source analysis. By reflecting on how each of these purposes can play a role in the classroom, which kinds of sources are appropriate for each, and where they fit into an overall sequence of instruction, teachers can ensure that their use of sources deepens and extends students’ historical understanding.

All history teachers know they should be using original historical sources—often misleadingly referred to as “primary sources”—but sometimes they are less clear on the purpose of using them. Students encounter original historical sources in textbooks and accompanying exercises, and they may be required to analyze them as part of examinations. But these encounters are not enough to communicate the purpose of including sources in the curriculum, particularly given that they are often difficult to read and understand. In order to have educational value, teachers need to think carefully about why original historical sources are important, and how their purpose affects their use in the classroom.

Perhaps the lack of clarity about sources stems in part from the fact that there is no single reason for including them, and thus no “right” way of have students engage with them. Rather, there are four distinct purposes for using original historical sources, and each carries its own implications for educators. It is important to think through how these purposes differ and what their role might be in the history classroom.

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Rethinking the Approach to Teaching Causation In the History Classroom

Author/s:

Noel T P Ong

Noel T P Ong (Ministry of Education (Singapore)) Keywords History Junior College Secondary School Rethinking Approach Introduction Core to historical research and the teaching of history is the concept of causation – in fact, E. H. Carr (1961: 87) famously opined, “the study of history is a study of causes”. Without an awareness and understanding of […]

Noel T P Ong (Ministry of Education (Singapore))

Keywords
History
Junior College
Secondary School
Rethinking Approach

Introduction
Core to historical research and the teaching of history is the concept of causation – in fact, E. H. Carr (1961: 87) famously opined, “the study of history is a study of causes”. Without an awareness and understanding of the concept of causation, it would be difficult to comprehend the reasons why events happened the way they did, and that evidence could be marshalled within a historical context to justify the relative hierarchy of factors for any given historical occurrence. However, based on my teaching experience and interaction with other teachers as well as feedback from students, I discovered that students found it difficult to make causal explanations that harnessed their knowledge and understanding of events in history. Specifically, these difficulties included their inability to construct viable historical explanations and to evaluate the relative importance of certain causes in explaining an event, development or action. This article describes an intervention carried out in a school in Singapore in 2015, using ideas and strategies developed by history educators related to the concept of historical causation and the ways to improve students’ causal reasoning skills.

Challenges in teaching historical causation
Scott (1990) broadly defined causation as

an understanding of the difference between long-term and short-term causes; an understanding that some causes are likely to be more important than others; an appreciation of the difference between, and the interdependence of, motivatory and enabling factors; and an understanding of the inter-relationship of different causatory factors.

(Scott, 1990: 9 cited in Phillips, 2002: 42)

However, many students in Shemilt’s Evaluation Study of the Schools History Project (SHP) seemed to “misconstrue even the most apparently self-evident features of the causality concept” (Shemilt, 1980: 30). The tendency was for these students to see causation as “something with the power to make something else happen” (Shemilt, 1980: 30). Exacerbating this issue was the students’ inability to understand “motivated action” as they “insist[ed] on seeing History as a record of what happened to people rather than of what they made happen” (Shemilt, 1980: 32) [emphasis mine]. Much of Shemilt’s findings pointed to apparent difficulties students faced when trying to make causal explanations.

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Using an International Videoconference in Problem-Based Inquiry Projects: The Role of Public Voice, Audience, and Positionality

Author/s:

J. Spencer Clark

J. Spencer Clark (Kansas State University) Keywords Social Studies Junior College Secondary School Teaching Practice Student Learning Contexts Abstract This article discusses and reflects upon a problem-based inquiry project that culminated in an international videoconference between multiethnic and multi-faith secondary students from Macedonia and the United States. The videoconference provided an opportunity for students to share […]

J. Spencer Clark (Kansas State University)

Keywords
Social Studies
Junior College
Secondary School
Teaching Practice
Student Learning
Contexts

Abstract
This article discusses and reflects upon a problem-based inquiry project that culminated in an international videoconference between multiethnic and multi-faith secondary students from Macedonia and the United States. The videoconference provided an opportunity for students to share their action plans, which proposed methods of addressing local problems or issues students had identified through their inquiry. This article focuses on three ways students engaged with the project and videoconference: inquiry, audience, and public voice. These aspects of the project illustrate how the students’ positionality on their chosen problem/issue shifted as they developed skills and knowledge through their inquiry. The article concludes with a discussion of implications for future problem-based inquiry projects in secondary schools.

Introduction
Many educators and schools are concerned with preparing students for civic engagement in their communities (Bischoff, 2016). Digital media and technology have only increased opportunities for schools to enhance their students’ civic engagement locally, nationally, and globally (Levine, 2008). In this article, I will discuss and reflect upon a project that aimed to civically engage high school students both locally and globally by addressing local issues. My discussion will focus on an international videoconference between multiethnic and multi-faith students from The Republic of Macedonia and the state of Utah, in the United States (U.S.). The videoconference served as the culminating event for semester-long, problem-based inquiry projects that were developed by students in both countries. The videoconference provided an opportunity for students to share action plans they created to address the local problems identified through their inquiry. The problem-based inquiry projects allowed students to examine their positionality and develop public voice related to local issues, while the videoconference provided an audience (Levine, 2008) for the students to engage their positionality and public voice, receive comparative perspectives, and corroborate new knowledge gained from their projects.

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The Elected Presidency

Author/s:

Johannis Auri Bin Abdul Aziz

Johannis Auri Bin Abdul Aziz (National Institute of Education (Singapore)) Keywords Social Studies Junior College Secondary School Identity Singapore Scheduled for September, the coming presidential election is one of the most anticipated public events of 2017. While the populations of larger democratic countries have to contend with numerous regional and local elections that may cause electoral […]

Johannis Auri Bin Abdul Aziz (National Institute of Education (Singapore))

Keywords
Social Studies
Junior College
Secondary School
Identity
Singapore

Scheduled for September, the coming presidential election is one of the most anticipated public events of 2017. While the populations of larger democratic countries have to contend with numerous regional and local elections that may cause electoral fatigue, Singaporeans get to express their democratic voice only once every two to three years. This year’s election, though, is especially anticipated by the Malay community because for the first time, the presidential election will be reserved for Malays.

In an inherited Westminster parliamentary system such as ours, the Head of State usually plays a largely ceremonial role. The first four presidents after independence were appointed by Parliament and their duty was largely to play a unifying figure presiding over ceremonies and events designed to bind Singaporeans together as one people and to act as Singapore’s foremost representative to foreign states and their dignitaries. Individuals with dignity, solemnity, and a little of the common touch were the order of the day. Benjamin Sheares was a doctor, Devan Nair was a unionist and Yusof Ishak and Wee Kim Wee were both journalists.

This system was changed in January 1991, after new constitutional amendments passed by Parliament provided for the popular election of the president. The PAP government wanted to invest powers of oversight in the presidency as a check on Parliament and that called for an independent source of legitimacy direct from the people. Under these constitutional changes, the elected president was given the power to veto legislative attempts to use the national reserves, the power to appoint individuals to certain key civil service positions, and powers to oversee the enforcement of the Internal Security Act, the Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act as well as the Prevention of Corruption Act by their respective executive bodies.

In November last year, constitutional provisions for the office of the president were again amended. This time the key changes were twofold. First, the 1991 requirement for private sector candidates to have helmed companies worth at least $100 million in shareholder equity was raised to $500 million. Second, the amendment provides for elections that are reserved for minority communities. A reserved election is triggered when five consecutive terms pass without a president from a particular minority community. However, these two new rules have sparked much controversy and heated debate on social media.

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Developing Historical Habits of Mind through Inquiry

Author/s:

Suhaimi Afandi

Suhaimi Afandi (National Institute of Education, Singapore) Eulalia Han (CHIJ Secondary School (Toa Payoh)) Keywords History Junior College Secondary School Inquiry Teaching Historical thinking Introduction Teaching history is not simply about getting students to learn “the right stories” or getting them to absorb transmitted knowledge about the past; it requires teachers to find means to develop students’ […]

Suhaimi Afandi (National Institute of Education, Singapore)
Eulalia Han (CHIJ Secondary School (Toa Payoh))

Keywords
History
Junior College
Secondary School
Inquiry Teaching
Historical thinking

Introduction
Teaching history is not simply about getting students to learn “the right stories” or getting them to absorb transmitted knowledge about the past; it requires teachers to find means to develop students’ historical understanding and to help these students make sense of the knowledge imparted through daily classroom instruction. As many of us already recognize, the knowledge we have about the past is never “given” or “just there” for the taking; the manner in which we come to know what we know about the past requires questioning, imagining, contextualising and (re-)constructing. History education researchers across many national contexts would agree that students need to be taught to understand the nature of historical knowledge – how such knowledge is constructed, how evidence is used to develop interpretations or support claims, how evidence/interpretation is adjudged as valid or credible, etc. – if they are to develop proper understandings about history. Acquiring proficiency in some of these processes calls for a mode of thinking (and an instructional approach) that can enable students to become confident and critical thinkers when studying history. This would involve cultivating certain historical habits of mind that work to develop students’ disciplinary ideas/understandings and help them become more adept at historical analysis. An instructional approach that uses historical inquiry as a pedagogical framework is more likely to provide opportunities for students to develop disciplinary ideas, and offers teachers with potential strategies and scaffolds to help deepen students’ understandings in more exciting ways. This article explores some ways teachers can make “the complex past” more accessible to students by helping them manage historical problems in the classroom while engaging them in disciplined inquiry about the past. It focuses on the use of inquiry as a means to develop good historical habits of mind, and demonstrates this idea by considering the ways students’ ideas (about significance, diversity, causation and accounts) can be developed through historical inquiry.

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Index

Lim En Qi

Authors List

Authors List

The Role of Geographical Investigations In Developing Students’ Cognitive Thinking

Incorporating Mediated Learning Experience in Geography Lessons

Sampling in Geographical Fieldwork Using GIS Techniques

Developing a Writing Framework to Guide Students’ Writing in Geography

Guiding Students in Writing Data Response Answers Using Bloom’s Taxonomy for Critical Thinking

Historical Sources In The Classroom: Purpose and Use

Rethinking the Approach to Teaching Causation In the History Classroom

Using an International Videoconference in Problem-Based Inquiry Projects: The Role of Public Voice, Audience, and Positionality

The Elected Presidency

Developing Historical Habits of Mind through Inquiry

HSSE Online

HSSE Online